Feeding ecology and habitat preferences of top predators from two Miocene Neogene Locales

Feeding ecology and habitat preferences of top predators from two Miocene carnivore-rich assemblages

Authors:

Domingo et al

Abstract:

Carnivore-rich fossil sites are uncommon in the fossil record and, accordingly, provide valuable opportunities to study predators from vantages that are rarely applied to ancient faunas. Through stable isotopes of carbon and a Bayesian mixing model, we analyze time-successive (nearly contemporaneous), late Miocene carnivoran populations from two fossil sites (Batallones-1 and Batallones-3) from central Spain. Stable isotopes of carbon in tooth enamel provide a reliable and direct methodology to track ancient diets. These two carnivoran-dominated fossil sites display differences in the composition and abundance of the carnivoran species, with some species present at both sites and some present only at one site. This disparity has been interpreted as the consequence of habitat differences between Batallones-1, the older site, and Batallones-3, the younger site. However, carbon isotope values of carnivore and herbivore tooth enamel suggest a common habitat of C3 woodland originally present at both sites. The differences in the carnivoran faunas rather may be the consequence of the dynamics of species entrance and exit from the Madrid Basin during the time elapsed between Batallones-1 and Batallones-3 and changes in population densities due to biotic factors. We infer higher levels of interspecific competition in Batallones-3 than in Batallones-1 because of the larger number of similar-sized, sympatric predators; the clear overlap in their δ13C values (except for the amphicyonid Magericyon anceps); and similarity of their preferred prey: the hipparionine horses. Finally, carbon stable isotopic composition of Indarctos arctoides teeth implies that this ursid was a carnivorous omnivore rather than a herbivorous omnivore. This work demonstrates the insights that stable isotopes can provide in characterizing the feeding ecology and trophic interactions of ancient carnivoran taxa.

Cynarctus wangi: a new Borophagine Canid From Miocene Neogene Maryland

A Borophagine canid (Carnivora: Canidae: Borophaginae) from the middle Miocene Chesapeake Group of eastern North America

Authors:

Jasinski et al

Abstract:

A tooth recovered from the middle Miocene Choptank Formation (Chesapeake Group) of Maryland is identified as a new cynarctin borophagine (Canidae: Borophaginae: Cynarctina), here called Cynarctus wangi n. sp. The tooth, identified as a right upper second molar, represents the first carnivoran material reported from the Choptank Formation and part of a limited record of borophagine canids from eastern North America. As ?Cynarctus marylandica (Berry, 1938), another cynarctin borophagine from the older Calvert Formation, is known only from lower dentition, its generic affinities are uncertain. However, features of this new material are compared to features of ?C. marylandica through occlusal relationships, allowing for referral to a distinct species. Even so, the Choptank Formation material still offers two possible scenarios regarding its identification. In one, its geographic and stratigraphic provenance could imply that it belongs to ?C. marylandica. If this were correct, then the generic placement of ?C. marylandica would be correct and the taxon would be more derived than some other Cynarctus species in regard to hypocarnivory, and less derived than others. The second possibility, and the one believed to be most probable, is that a distinct cynarctin borophagine is present in the Chesapeake Group in strata younger than the type specimen of ?C. marylandica. This new borophagine canid expands the sparse fossil record of this group in northeastern North America and furthers our knowledge of the fossil record of terrestrial taxa in this region.

North and South American Pleistocene Quaternary Bears Evolved Giantism Independently

The work of University of Adelaide researchers is shedding new light on the evolution of what are believed to be the largest bears that ever walked the Earth.

Dr Kieren Mitchell, from the University's Australian Centre for Ancient DNA, School of Biological Sciences, has a new paper just published in Biology Letters.

He writes: "During the Pleistocene (2.5 million years ago - 11 thousand years ago) giant bears weighing over 1,000kg roamed both North and South America. These giants belonged to a now practically extinct subfamily of bears - Tremarctinae - which is today only represented by the small, herbivorous Andean spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus).

"The giant North American bears (Arctodus) and South American bears (Arctotherium) have long been believed to be each others' closest relative. However, by comparing ancient DNA data obtained from representatives of the two extinct genera and comparing them with the living species, we were able to show that Arctotherium is most closely related to Tremarctos and not Arctodus.

"The implication of this result is that these bears represent a remarkable instance of convergent evolution, as giant bears appear to have evolved independently in both North and South America.

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Kolponomos: The Miocene Neogene "Otter Bear" had a Smilodon-like Bite

New research suggests that the feeding strategy of Kolponomos, an enigmatic shell-crushing marine predator that lived about 20 million years ago, was strangely similar to a very different kind of carnivore: the saber-toothed cat Smilodon. Scientists at the American Museum of Natural History used high-resolution x-ray imaging and computerized biting simulations to show that even though the two extinct predators likely contrasted greatly in food preference and environment, they shared similar engineering in jaw structure, suitable for anchoring against prey with the lower jaw and forcefully throwing the skull forward to pry loose its food. The study is published today in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

The only known specimens of Kolponomos--primarily skulls and teeth of two species--were recovered from ancient marine deposits along the Pacific coast of Oregon, Washington, and possibly Alaska. Because of its peculiar morphology and the small number of fossils, the animal's place in the evolutionary tree remains a mystery.

"When Kolponomos was first described in the 1960s, it was thought to be a raccoon relative," said Camille Grohé, a National Science Foundation and Frick Postdoctoral Fellow in the American Museum of Natural History's Division of Paleontology and a co-author on the new paper. "But later research on the skull base led some to think it might be a seal or a bear relative instead, and studies of its teeth show that they are very similar in both shape and wear to the teeth in sea otters."

Sea otters pry their prey--hard-shelled marine invertebrates like clams and mussels--off of surfaces using their hands and rock tools, then crush the shells with their teeth or against their chests, again using tools. By studying Kolponomos fossil material from the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., and comparative specimens from the American Museum of Natural History, the research team originally set out to test if the extinct predator used otter-like shell-crushing to eat. But the scope of the research expanded after Grohé's collaborator Z. Jack Tseng noticed something curious in parallel to work he was conducting on the saber-toothed cat Smilodon.

"I started seeing a great deal of similarity between the jaws of Kolponomos and Smilodon," said Tseng, a National Science Foundation and Frick Postdoctoral Fellow in the American Museum of Natural History's Division of Paleontology and the lead author on the new paper. "Both of them have a distinctive profile with a deep jaw bone that tapers off toward the back, and both have an expansion of the mastoid processes and the skull's back surface, suggesting large attachment sites for muscles that let the animal move its head powerfully but with control. We definitely didn't expect to bring Smilodon into this study of feeding in a clam-eating marine carnivore, but that's what we ended up doing."

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Large Pleistocene Carnivores had a Huge Impact on the Ecology

The impact of large terrestrial carnivores on Pleistocene ecosystems

Authors:

Van Valkenburgh et al

Abstract:

Large mammalian terrestrial herbivores, such as elephants, have dramatic effects on the ecosystems they inhabit and at high population densities their environmental impacts can be devastating. Pleistocene terrestrial ecosystems included a much greater diversity of megaherbivores (e.g., mammoths, mastodons, giant ground sloths) and thus a greater potential for widespread habitat degradation if population sizes were not limited. Nevertheless, based on modern observations, it is generally believed that populations of megaherbivores (>800 kg) are largely immune to the effects of predation and this perception has been extended into the Pleistocene. However, as shown here, the species richness of big carnivores was greater in the Pleistocene and many of them were significantly larger than their modern counterparts. Fossil evidence suggests that interspecific competition among carnivores was relatively intense and reveals that some individuals specialized in consuming megaherbivores. To estimate the potential impact of Pleistocene large carnivores, we use both historic and modern data on predator–prey body mass relationships to predict size ranges of their typical and maximum prey when hunting as individuals and in groups. These prey size ranges are then compared with estimates of juvenile and subadult proboscidean body sizes derived from extant elephant growth data. Young proboscideans at their most vulnerable age fall within the predicted prey size ranges of many of the Pleistocene carnivores. Predation on juveniles can have a greater impact on megaherbivores because of their long interbirth intervals, and consequently, we argue that Pleistocene carnivores had the capacity to, and likely did, limit megaherbivore population sizes.

How Carnivores Adaptively Radiative After a Continental Faunal Exchange

Continental faunal exchange and the asymmetrical radiation of carnivores

Authors:

Pires et al

Abstract:

Lineages arriving on islands may undergo explosive evolutionary radiations owing to the wealth of ecological opportunities. Although studies on insular taxa have improved our understanding of macroevolutionary phenomena, we know little about the macroevolutionary dynamics of continental exchanges. Here we study the evolution of eight Carnivora families that have migrated across the Northern Hemisphere to investigate if continental invasions also result in explosive diversification dynamics. We used a Bayesian approach to estimate speciation and extinction rates from a substantial dataset of fossil occurrences while accounting for the incompleteness of the fossil record. Our analyses revealed a strongly asymmetrical pattern in which North American lineages invading Eurasia underwent explosive radiations, whereas lineages invading North America maintained uniform diversification dynamics. These invasions into Eurasia were characterized by high rates of speciation and extinction. The radiation of the arriving lineages in Eurasia coincide with the decline of established lineages or phases of climate change, suggesting differences in the ecological settings between the continents may be responsible for the disparity in diversification dynamics. These results reveal long-term outcomes of biological invasions and show that the importance of explosive radiations in shaping diversity extends beyond insular systems and have significant impact at continental scales.

Canid Extinction Evidence Competition Does Play an Important Role in Evolution

The role of clade competition in the diversification of North American canids

Authors:

Silvestro et al

Abstract:

The history of biodiversity is characterized by a continual replacement of branches in the tree of life. The rise and demise of these branches (clades) are ultimately determined by changes in speciation and extinction rates, often interpreted as a response to varying abiotic and biotic factors. However, understanding the relative importance of these factors remains a major challenge in evolutionary biology. Here we analyze the rich North American fossil record of the dog family Canidae and of other carnivores to tease apart the roles of competition, body size evolution, and climate change on the sequential replacement of three canid subfamilies (two of which have gone extinct). We develop a novel Bayesian analytic framework to show that competition from multiple carnivore clades successively drove the demise and replacement of the two extinct canid subfamilies by increasing their extinction rates and suppressing their speciation. Competitive effects have likely come from ecologically similar species from both canid and felid clades. These results imply that competition among entire clades, generally considered a rare process, can play a more substantial role than climate change and body size evolution in determining the sequential rise and decline of clades.

Simocyon batalleri: a Miocene Neogene Red Panda Relative was Mountain Lion Sized, Arboreal

Quantitative inferences on the locomotor behaviour of extinct species applied to Simocyon batalleri (Ailuridae, Late Miocene, Spain)

Authors:

Fabre et al

Abstract:

Inferences of function and ecology in extinct taxa have long been a subject of interest because it is fundamental to understand the evolutionary history of species. In this study, we use a quantitative approach to investigate the locomotor behaviour of Simocyon batalleri, a key taxon related to the ailurid family. To do so, we use 3D surface geometric morphometric approaches on the three long bones of the forelimb of an extant reference sample. Next, we test the locomotor strategy of S. batalleri using a leave-one-out cross-validated linear discriminant analysis. Our results show that S. batalleri is included in the morphospace of the living species of musteloids. However, each bone of the forelimb appears to show a different functional signal suggesting that inferring the lifestyle or locomotor behaviour of fossils can be difficult and dependent on the bone investigated. This highlights the importance of studying, where possible, a maximum of skeletal elements to be able to make robust inferences on the lifestyle of extinct species. Finally, our results suggest that S. batalleri may be more arboreal than previously suggested.

No Sign of an Adaptive Radiation for Canids?

Iterative adaptive radiations of fossil canids show no evidence for diversity-dependent trait evolution

Author:

Slater

Abstract:

Many of the most diverse lineages of animals and plants are hypothesized to have arisen via the process of adaptive radiation. Most modern definitions of adaptive radiation focus on the role of ecological opportunity in regulating rates of morphological diversification. Using the rich fossil record of North American canids (wolves, foxes, and their relatives), I found no relationship between past diversity and rates of body size or tooth shape evolution. Instead, phenotypic evolution is directed toward adaptively optimal morphologies, such as large size or broad molars, without changes in the rate at which diversity accumulates. If these kinds of processes are common, we may need to rethink many of our ideas about the origins of morphological diversity.

Grey Wolves, Dire Wolves and Coyotes Through the Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction

Cynelos malasi: An Eurasian Bear Dog in Miocene Neogene Southern California

A skull of the immigrant Eurasian beardog Cynelos (Carnivora, Amphicyonidae) from the early Miocene of southern California

Authors:

Hunt et al

Abstract:

At ∼23 Ma, large amphicyonid carnivorans participated in the initial Neogene mammal migration passing though the Bering filter en route to North America. Among the migrants were the amphicyonines Cynelos and Ysengrinia, first appearing in early Miocene sediments of the upper Arikaree Group in Nebraska and Wyoming, having entered the New World with chalicotheres, small cervoids, and the cursorial rhinoceros Menoceras. Early representatives of these immigrant carnivores had not, until recently, been recovered from localities along the Pacific coastal corridor of western North America. Here we report the discovery of a unique skull that establishes the presence of an early Neogene species of Cynelos (C. malasi, sp. nov.) in coastal southern California. The skull shares craniodental features with early Miocene species of the genus in Europe. Dentition (P4-M1-M2) and cranial morphology of Cynelos malasi compare with C. helbingi (southern Germany) and C. lemanensis (France, Germany) but uniquely combine size and occlusal detail to preclude assignment to these species. Cynelos malasi is assigned a latest Arikareean (Ar4) age in the North American Land Mammal Age (NALMA) chronology. By the early Miocene, species of Cynelos had dispersed from western Europe to northern Africa and into western North America. Whether the taxon arrived in North America by following a coastal southern Asian route or by Palaearctic dispersal is unconfirmed. Given the similarity between North American and European species of Cynelos, we suspect that the genus spanned Asia during the early Miocene.

Jaw Function in Smilodon fatalis

Jaw Function in Smilodon fatalis: A Reevaluation of the Canine Shear-Bite and a Proposal for a New Forelimb-Powered Class 1 Lever Model

Author:

Brown

Abstract:

The jaw function of Smilodon fatalis has long been a source of debate. Although modern-day lions subdue large prey through the use of a suffocating throat bite, the dramatically elongated maxillary canines of S. fatalis suggest an alternative bite mechanism. The current literature favors a “canine shear-bite,” in which the depression of the cranium by the ventral neck flexors assists the mandibular adductors in closing the jaws. Although the model makes intuitive sense and appears to be supported by scientific data, the mechanical feasibility of “neck-powered” biting has not been experimentally demonstrated. In the present study, the computer-assisted manipulation of digitized images of a high-quality replica of an S. fatalis neck and skull shows that a rotation of the cranium by the ventral neck flexors will not result in jaw closure. Instead, the cranium and mandible rotate ventrally together (at the atlantooccipital joint), and the jaws remain in an open configuration. The only manner by which rotation of the cranium can simultaneously result in jaw closure is by an anterior rotation at the temporomandibular joint. Based on this finding, the author proposes a new Class 1 lever mechanism for S. fatalis jaw function. In this model, the mandible is immobilized against the neck of the prey and a dorsally directed force from the extension of the forelimbs rotates the cranium anteriorly at the temporomandibular joint. The maxillary canines pierce the prey’s neck and assist in clamping the ventral neck structures. The model is based on a maximum gape angle of approximately 90° and incorporates a secondary virtual point of rotation located slightly anteroventral to the temporomandibular joint. The Class 1 Lever Model is mechanically feasible, consistent with current data on S. fatalis anatomy and ecology, and may provide a basis for similar studies on other fossil taxa.

Procyonids Dispersed Twice From North America to South America Prior to the Great American Biotic Interchange

Carnivorans at the Great American Biotic Interchange: new discoveries from the northern neotropics

Authors:

Forasiepi et al

Abstract:

We report two fossil procyonids, Cyonasua sp. and Chapalmalania sp., from the late Pliocene of Venezuela (Vergel Member, San Gregorio Formation) and Colombia (Ware Formation), respectively. The occurrence of these pre-Holocene procyonids outside Argentina and in the north of South America provides further information about the Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI). The new specimens are recognized in the same monophyletic group as procyonids found in the southern part of the continent, the “Cyonasua group,” formed by species of Cyonasua and Chapalmalania. The phylogenetic analysis that includes the two new findings support the view that procyonids dispersed from North America in two separate events (initially, previous to the first major migration wave—GABI 1—and then within the last major migration wave—GABI 4—). This involved reciprocal lineage migrations from North to South America, and included the evolution of South American endemic forms.

Canadian Coastal Wolves are Genetically Distinct From Their Mainland Relatives

New research co-authored by University of Calgary alumna Erin Navid provides evidence that British Columbia's mainland wolves and coastal wolves are more distinct than previously believed.

The research, published today in the scientific journal BMC Ecology, affirms what Chester Starr, an elder from the Heiltsuk First Nation on BC's remote west coast, and his people have always known: 'Timber Wolves' occupy the mainland of the British Columbia coast and 'Coastal Wolves' live on the nearby islands. Starr's insight provided motivation for the study.

"What makes this study special is the fact that differentiation is not supposed to occur on such a small-scale," says Navid, who graduated from the Faculty of Environmental Design, Environmental Science Program in 2009. "Wolves are highly mobile animals, capable of crossing many types of natural barriers, including small bodies of water. We did not expect to uncover a genetic gradient in an area that is only 2,000 square kilometres and relatively permeable to wolf movement."

The authors attribute the observed genetic differentiation to the profoundly different ecological environments. Coastal islands offer wolves more marine-based foods, such as salmon and marine mammals—preferences that are passed on from generation to generation. Over time, coastal wolves bred more frequently with one another and less frequently with their deer-loving relatives on the mainland.

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Promegantereon ogygia: a Miocene Neogene Machairodont Sabre Tooth Cat

Promegantereon ogygia (Felidae, Machairodontinae, Smilodontini) from the Vallesian (late Miocene, MN 10) of Spain: morphological and functional differences in two noncontemporary populations

Authors:

Siliceo et al

Abstract:

We compare two populations of the primitive saber-toothed felid Promegantereon ogygia from the late Miocene (Vallesian, MN 10) of Spain. These populations come from two fossil sites, Batallones-1 and Batallones-3, located very close to each other, within the Cerro de los Batallones complex. The sites show differences in age and in their faunal assemblages, with Batallones-1 being older than Batallones-3. We find that the population from this latter site shows slightly derived characters in both dentition and postcranial elements, which clearly indicate evolution within the Promegantereon lineage, but are not strong enough to support a separation at the species level.

Two New Carnivoraform Mammals from the early Eocene Europe

New carnivoraforms from the early Eocene of Europe and their bearing on the evolution of the Carnivoraformes

Authors:

Solé

Abstract:

Two new mammalian carnivoraform species, Uintacyon hookeri sp. nov. and Quercygale smithi sp. nov., are described from the early Eocene of Europe. U. hookeri sp. nov. is recorded in Mutigny (MP8 + 9, PE IV), Avenay (MP8 + 9, PE V), Brasles, Condé-en-Brie (MP8 + 9) and Cuis (MP 10), while Q. smithi sp. nov. comes from Mutigny and Mancy (MP10). Because the two species are not recorded in earliest Eocene localities such as Dormaal and Le Quesnoy (MP7, PE I), it is proposed that they dispersed after the main phase of the Mammal Dispersal Event. U. hookeri sp. nov. supports the existence of terrestrial connections with North America, while Q. smithi sp. nov. implies possible faunal exchange with Asia. This evidence for the evolution of the Carnivoraformes supports: (1) a rapid decrease in their diversity after the Mammal Dispersal Event; and (2) the existence of a mammal turnover event in Europe during the early Eocene. The discovery of a new species of Quercygale, which is generally considered as the closest carnivoraform to the crown-group Carnivora, shows that the genus had already lost the M3 by the early Eocene and supports an important, but very poorly known, radiation of the carnivoraforms at least during the earliest early Eocene.

Dormaalocyon latouri: A Close Relative to the Ancestor of All Modern Carnivores From the Paleocene Paleogene

New fossils from Belgium have shed light on the origin of some of the most well-known, and well-loved, modern mammals. Cats and dogs, as well as other carnivorous mammals (like bears, seals, and weasels), taxonomically called 'carnivoraformes', trace their ancestry to primitive carnivorous mammals dating back to 55 million years ago (the beginning of the time period called the Eocene). A study, published in the most recent issue of the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, discusses the origins of this group and describes new specimens of one of the earliest of these primitive taxa.

The species, dubbed Dormaalocyon latouri, had previously been found at the Belgian locality of Dormaal (thus the name of the genus). New specimens found by lead author Floréal Solé and his colleagues, allow for a better characterization of the animal, and its placement in the evolutionary history of carnivores. "Its description allows better understanding of the origination, variability and ecology of the earliest carnivoraforms", says Solé.

The new specimens include over 250 teeth and ankle bones. More teeth allow for a description of the entire tooth row of Dormaalocyon, while previous finds only included two upper molars. The new finds even include the deciduous teeth (or 'baby teeth'). The fact that these teeth are very primitive looking, and from a very early time, implies that Dormaalocyon is close to the origin of carnivoraforms, and that this origin may have been in Europe.

The ankle bones suggest that Dormaalocyon was arboreal, living and moving through the trees. Previous reconstructions of the environment at Dormaal 55 million years ago inferred a warm, humid, and wooded area. This was a time soon after an event called the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (or PETM). This extremely warm period affected the evolution of many mammal groups, including carnivoraforms. Dr. Solé believes that the fact that Dormaalocyon was arboreal, and that carnivoraforms made their way to North America around this time, "supports the existence of a continuous evergreen forest belt at high latitudes during the PETM".

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Genetic Evidence Dogs Were Domesticated in Europe First

Wolves likely were domesticated by European hunter–gatherers more than 18,000 years ago and gradually evolved into dogs that became household pets, UCLA life scientists report.

"We found that instead of recent wolves being closest to domestic dogs, ancient European wolves were directly related to them," said Robert Wayne, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology in UCLA's College of Letters and Science and senior author of the research. "This brings the genetic record into agreement with the archaeological record. Europe is where the oldest dogs are found."

[...]

For the current study in Science, the researchers studied 10 ancient "wolf-like" animals and eight "dog-like" animals, mostly from Europe. These animals were all more than 1,000 years old, most were thousands of years old, and two were more than 30,000 years old.

The biologists studied the mitochondrial DNA of the animals, which is abundant in ancient remains. (Mitochondria are tiny sub-cellular structures with their own small genome.) By comparing this ancient mitochondrial DNA with the modern mitochondrial genomes of 77 domestic dogs, 49 wolves and four coyotes, the researchers determined that the domestic dogs were genetically grouped with ancient wolves or dogs from Europe — not with wolves found anywhere else in the world or even with modern European wolves. Dogs, they concluded, derived from ancient wolves that inhabited Europe and are now extinct.

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The Social and Sex Lives Of Extinct Miocene Neogene Bear Relative Indarctos arctoides

On the Socio-Sexual Behaviour of the Extinct Ursid Indarctos arctoides: An Approach Based on Its Baculum Size and Morphology

Authors:

1. Juan Abella (a,b)
2. Alberto Valenciano (c,d)
3. Alejandro Pérez-Ramos (d,e)
4. Plinio Montoya (f)
5. Jorge Morales (b)

Affiliations:

a. Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Edifici ICP, Campus de la UAB s/n, Barcelona, Spain

b. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, Madrid, Spain

c. Departamento de Geología Sedimentaria y Cambio Medioambiental. Instituto de Geociencias (CSIC, UCM), Madrid, Spain

d. Departamento de Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencias Geológicas UCM, Madrid, Spain

e. Institut Cavanilles de Biodiversitat i Biologia Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Paterna, Spain

f. Departament de Geologia, Àrea de Paleontologia, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain

Abstract:

The fossil bacula, or os penis, constitutes a rare subject of study due to its scarcity in the fossil record. In the present paper we describe five bacula attributed to the bear Indarctos arctoides Depéret, 1895 from the Batallones-3 site (Madrid Basin, Spain). Both the length and morphology of this fossil bacula enabled us to make interpretative approaches to a series of ecological and ethological characters of this bear. Thus, we suggest that I. arctoides could have had prolonged periods of intromission and/or maintenance of intromission during the post-ejaculatory intervals, a multi-male mating system and large home range sizes and/or lower population density. Its size might also have helped females to choose from among the available males.

Query: Was the Cave Bear's Genome Mapped?