Oxygen Levels may Have Never Crashed During the Mesozoic

A modeling case for high atmospheric oxygen concentrations during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic

Authors:

Mills et al

Abstract:

Changes in atmospheric oxygen concentration over Earth history are commonly related to the evolution of animals and plants. But there is no direct geochemical proxy for O2 levels, meaning that estimations rely heavily on modeling approaches. The results of such studies differ greatly, to the extent that today's atmospheric mixing ratio of 21% might be either the highest or lowest level during the past 200 m.y. Long-term oxygen sources, such as the burial in sediments of reduced carbon and sulfur species, are calculated in models by representation of nutrient cycling and estimation of productivity, or by isotope mass balance (IMB)—a technique in which burial rates are inferred in order to match known isotope records. Studies utilizing these different techniques produce conflicting estimates for paleoatmospheric O2, with nutrient-weathering models estimating concentrations close to, or above, that of the present day, and IMB models estimating low O2, especially during the Mesozoic. Here we re-assess the IMB technique using the COPSE biogeochemical model. IMB modelling is confirmed to be highly sensitive to assumed carbonate δ13C, and when this input is defined following recent compilations, predicted O2 is significantly higher and in reasonable agreement with that of non-IMB techniques. We conclude that there is no model-based support for low atmospheric oxygen concentrations during the past 200 m.y. High Mesozoic O2 is consistent with wildfire records and the development of plant fire adaptions, but links between O2 and mammal evolution appear more tenuous.

Evidence of Wild Fires From Cisuralian Permian China

First report of Cisuralian (early Permian) charcoal layers within a coal bed from Baode, North China with reference to global wildfire distribution

Authors:

Yan et al

Abstract:

Fossil charcoal is reported for the first time from a Cisuralian coal bed of the Shanxi Formation in the Qiaotou Section, Baode, Shanxi, North China. Based on anatomical characteristics, these charcoal fragments consist of coniferous or cordaitalean xylem, unidentified primary xylem and cordaitalean and possible fern leaves. These charcoal fragments represent the evidence of palaeowildfire taking place in tropical peat swamps during the Cisuralian in Cathaysia. The palaeowildfire is most likely to be a surface fire and burning litter and shrubby vegetation. Fire frequency for this early Permian peat swamp might have been on the order of 176–(294–588)–1429 years, close to modern values. Compared with modern analogues, the North China Block during the Cisuralian was probably wet in general but could be occasionally seasonally dry for short time intervals. Previous charcoal and inertinite records moreover indicate that palaeowildfires were globally common during the Cisuralian. Overall, more wildfire evidence was found in the Artinskian–Kungurian than the Asselian-Sakmarian (except in the Euramerican Realm), probably due to more suitable regional climate, vegetation to fuel fires and taphonomic circumstances.

Evidence of Wild Fires From Barremian Cretaceous Jordan

Fire in a Weichselia-dominated coastal ecosystem from the Lower Cretaceous (Barremian) of the Kurnub Group in NW Jordan

Authors:

Abu Hamad et al

Abstract:

Large intervals of the Cretaceous are considered as a ‘high-fire’ period in Earth's history. However, so far most studies dealing in greater detail with the fossil evidence of palaeo-wildfires, i.e. fossil charcoal, originate from the northern hemisphere (i.e. North America, Europe, Asia) whereas there are large stratigraphic and geographic gaps on the Cretaceous southern continents. The present paper deals with the fossil contents (plant macro-remains, palynomorphs and charcoal) of a lignite lens from the lower part of the Lower Cretaceous Kurnub Group near King Talal Dam in Jordan. The data provide evidence for the repeated occurrence of palaeo-wildfires in coastal ecosystems on the northern margin of Gondwana during the Barremian. The fossil content of the lens indicates that the vegetation, which was repeatedly affected by fire, has been dominated by the matoniaceous tree fern Weichselia reticulata. Palynological data from the lignite, as well as the repeated occurrence of wildfires point to an at least seasonally dry (or at least less humid) climate during deposition of the lignite.

WILDFIRES! in Lopingian Permian Brazil!

Evidence for palaeo-wildfire in the Late Permian palaeotropics — Charcoal from the Motuca Formation in the Parnaíba Basin, Brazil

Authors:

Kauffmann et al

Abstract:

The Permian deglaciation of Gondwana caused a global icehouse/greenhouse transition, leading to increased aridity over large parts of this continent during the Lopingian, contributing to the overall scarcity of plant bearing localities. Despite a continuous increase of reports of fossil charcoal as direct evidence for palaeo-wildfires from Late Palaeozoic deposits, such records from low-latitude and arid to semi-arid areas are still rare. In order to contribute to the discussion about palaeoenvironmental conditions that dominated low latitudinal portions of the globe during that period and especially the occurrence of wildfires, the present contribution reports on charcoal recovered from sandstones from the Andradina Outcrop, Late Permian (Lopingian), Motuca Formation, in the Parnaíba Basin, Northern Brazil. This locality is part of the Northern Tocantins Petrified Forest, which is classified as one of the most important Permian assemblages of permineralized plant remains from warm temperate palaeobiomes of the Southern Hemisphere. The results presented here provide the first evidence for the occurrence of palaeo-wildfires in the western part of the Gondwanan palaeo-tropics during the Lopingian.

Carbon Emissions From Indonesian Fires Depends on the Fire Type

Carbon emissions caused by burning tropical peatlands in Indonesia vary considerably depending on if the fires are initial or recurrent, according to new research conducted at the University of Leicester.

The study, which was co-authored by Professor Susan Page and Dr Kevin Tansey from the University of Leicester's Department of Geography, also found that peatlands closer to canals have a higher probability of high frequency fires, which release harmful carbon emissions into the atmosphere.

The study, 'Variable carbon losses from recurrent fires in drained tropical peatlands', which was conducted with researchers at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich (LMU) and published in the journal Global Change Biology, presents the first spatially explicit investigation of fire-driven tropical peat loss and its variability, suggesting that there is a strong relationship between burned area depth, fire frequency and distance to drainage canals in tropical peatlands.

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Indonesian Wild Fires, Palm Oil Trade Linked to El Nino?

A fire with global connections

Author:

Gross

Abstract:

The 2015 wildfires in Indonesia are possibly the largest environmental disaster of the century so far. They connect and highlight important global issues including climate change, El Niño, and deforestation driven by the booming global trade with palm oil.

Australia's Dryland, Fire Prone Vegetation Dominated Ecosystem Orginated in the Campanian Cretaceous, Predating the Rain Forests of the Cenozoic

New fossil evidence shows that Australia's fire-prone shrubland open vegetation originated at least 70 million years ago -- 40-50 million years earlier than previously thought.

The findings, published online ahead of print in the American Journal of Botany, reject prevailing wisdom that Australia was covered with rainforest until 40 million years ago, and that currently dominant native vegetation types evolved after that on a drying continent with increasing fire.

"I grew up and started working believing that this iconic Australian vegetation evolved under the influence of fires as the rainforests dried out, largely over the last 25 million years or so. But it now looks like our fire-prone vegetation has much more ancient origins," says co-author Professor Bob Hill, Executive Dean of the University of Adelaide's Faculty of Sciences.

"This dryland, fire-prone vegetation actually precedes the mega-rainforests and it somehow managed to survive through the wetter times."

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First Evidence of a Wild Fire From Campanian Cretaceous North Africa

The first evidence of paleo-wildfire from the Campanian (Late Cretaceous) of North Africa

Authors:

El Atfy et al

Abstract:

Although the fossil record of plant macro- and mesofossils, including fossil charcoal, is patchy geographically and temporally, such remains play an important role for the interpretation of paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic developments in the continental realm. In Egypt, previous palynological studies on the Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) deposits suggested presence of lush subtropical forests, dominated by angiosperms and pteridophytes, which developed under warm and wet climatic conditions. In the present study, the occurrence of paleo-wildfires during the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) is presented for the first time, based on samples from a surface exposure in the vicinity of the Baris Oasis, south Western Desert, Egypt. Macroscopic charcoal was collected and subsequently analyzed under a stereomicroscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The charred wood remains were identified as belonging to gymnosperms, which were important components of the North African paleoflora during the Cretaceous. These charcoal remains represent the first verified occurrence of paleo-wildfires in Africa during the Campanian.

Evidence of Wildfire From Aptian/Albian Cretaceous Brazil

Evidence of palaeo-wildfire from the upper Lower Cretaceous (Serra do Tucano Formation, Aptian–Albian) of Roraima (North Brazil)

Authors:

Scaramuzza dos Santos et al

Abstract:

Wood fossil charcoal is identified from the upper Lower Cretaceous (Serra do Tucano Formation, Aptian–Albian) of Roraima (North Brazil). The presence of charcoal demonstrates the occurrence of Early Cretaceous palaeo-wildfires for the first time in this region and only the third time for the entirety of South America. A gymnospermous taxonomic affinity can be established for the charred woods and a relationship with conifers is likely, thus providing additional evidence for the taxonomic composition of Early Cretaceous floras in this region.

Evidence of Wild Fires Found in Bonebed From Guadalupian Permian Brazil

Extending the database of Permian palaeo-wildfire on Gondwana: Charcoal remains from the Rio do Rasto Formation (Paraná Basin), Middle Permian, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil 

Authors:

Manfroi et al

Abstract:

Macroscopic charcoal has been recovered from a bonebed from the Barro Alto outcrop, Middle Permian (Guadalupian), Rio do Rasto Formation, in the southernmost part of the Paraná Basin, Brazil. During this time, a global biotic crisis was taking place and changes in the palaeofloristic composition can be observed. Records of palaeowildfires from the Guadalupian Period are scarce on a global scale. In the Paraná Basin low plant diversity, compared to the entirety of Gondwana, persists and just a few plant bearing localities have so far been described from the northern part of the basin. In the studied locality, macroscopic charcoal could be detected in an outcropping bonebed and the occurrence of palaeo-wildfires was confirmed. Besides representing the first palaeobotanical data for the Guadalupian of the southern part of the Paraná Basin, the charcoal remains analyzed here are also a significant record of the local environmental conditions during the increase in aridity observed during the Guadalupian and Lopingian in Gondwana. This contributes to the understanding of regional changes that took place during this interval.

Thar be Char! Evidence of Wild Fire During the Wuchiapingian Permian

Charred wood of Prototaxoxylon from the Wuchiapingian Wutonggou Formation (Permian) of Dalongkou, northern Bogda Mountains, northwestern China

Authors:

Wan et al

Abstract:

Charred wood occurs sporadically in sedimentary rocks in China. A marcroscopic charcoal with well-preserved anatomical structure is described from the Wuchiapiangian Wutonggou Formation in the southern part of Dalongkou section, northern Bogda Mountains in the Junggar Basin, northwestern China. It is characterized by uniseriate radial tracheidal pitting, taxaceous tertiary spiral thickenings in the tracheidal walls, uniseriate tangential tracheidal pitting, homogeneous, uniseriate, 2-10 cells high xylem rays, and 1-2 pits in each cross-field. It is assigned to Prototaxoxylon uniseriale Prasad. The uniseriate, bordered, contiguous, rarely separate tangential pitting of P. uniseriale is evidenced clearly for the first time. The features of this species shows a close affinity with conifers. The coniferous charred wood may have been derived from an extrabasinal forest, perhaps from upland environment deep within the hinterland, according to results of modern taphonomic research.

The Unstable Paleoenvironmental Reasons why Dionsaurs Didn't Dominate the Late Triassic Tropics

Extreme ecosystem instability suppressed tropical dinosaur dominance for 30 million years

Authors:

Whiteside et al

Abstract:

A major unresolved aspect of the rise of dinosaurs is why early dinosaurs and their relatives were rare and species-poor at low paleolatitudes throughout the Late Triassic Period, a pattern persisting 30 million years after their origin and 10–15 million years after they became abundant and speciose at higher latitudes. New palynological, wildfire, organic carbon isotope, and atmospheric pCO2 data from early dinosaur-bearing strata of low paleolatitudes in western North America show that large, high-frequency, tightly correlated variations in δ13Corg and palynomorph ecotypes occurred within a context of elevated and increasing pCO2 and pervasive wildfires. Whereas pseudosuchian archosaur-dominated communities were able to persist in these same regions under rapidly fluctuating extreme climatic conditions until the end-Triassic, large-bodied, fast-growing tachymetabolic dinosaurian herbivores requiring greater resources were unable to adapt to unstable high CO2 environmental conditions of the Late Triassic.

tsk, tsk.  Multiple instances of wild fire during the Triassic.  Can't have had too bad of an oxygen crash.  All we need to finish that theory are examples from the jurassic.

How Much Did Aboriginal Fire Impact the Australian Environment Over the Last 20,000 Years?

Exploring the relationship between Aboriginal population indices and fire in Australia over the last 20,000 years

Authors:

Williams et al

Abstract:

The extent of prehistoric human impact on the environment is a contentious topic in various palaeo-environmental sciences. The long history of humans in Australia and its extensive fire-prone biota makes this continent a key research area for better characterization of prehistoric human–fire interactions. Here we use statistically robust cross-correlation of archaeological radiocarbon data (n = 4102 ages from 1616 sites) and a new synthesis of charcoal records (n = 155 sites) to test for any relationship between people and fire over the last 20,000 years at continental and regional (25–45°S) scales. We find that the statistical correlation between the two datasets is weak at both spatial scales, with short-lived synchronous responses only in the terminal Pleistocene–Holocene transition, at the onset of the mid-Holocene climatic optimum (~ 10–7 ka) and during significant transitions of El Niño Southern Oscillation (~ 5–4 ka and 1.2–0.8 ka). One interpretation of this is that Aboriginal populations were implementing ‘fire-stick farming’ only intermittently during periods of societal stress resulting from climatic variability. However, the synchronicity of the correlations with climate changes, along with the low populations through much of this time, suggests that both datasets were independently responding to external climatic forcing. Under either scenario, a lack of significant change in the charcoal record implies that there were no long-lasting impacts to the environmental biota, and macro-scale palaeoenvironmental records prior to European colonization largely reflect responses to non-human influences. While we do not discount the possibility of systematic or deliberate manipulation of fire regimes at local spatial scales, we conclude that human control of fire by prehistoric people in Australia is not evident at broad landscape levels. This conclusion contradicts persistent suggestions of Australian-wide land management and the pervasiveness of the impacts of ‘fire-stick farming’.

First Evidence of a Post Wildfire Debris Flow From the Valanginian (?) Cretaceous Algoa Basin

Lower Cretaceous deposit reveals first evidence of a post-wildfire debris flow in the Kirkwood Formation, Algoa Basin, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Authors:

Muir et al

Abstract:

The Algoa Basin is an onshore rift basin filled by an Upper Mesozoic non-marine and shallow marine sedimentary sequence. The middle unit of this clastic succession is assigned to the Lower Cretaceous Kirkwood Formation, known to host a wealth of plant and animal fossils together with poorly documented lignites, amber and charcoal clasts. This study is motivated by the growing interest in the impact of wildfires on the palaeoenvironment during the high-oxygen, Cretaceous world. It has been hypothesised that frequent and severe Cretaceous wildfires triggered large-scale non-marine denudation events, altering the sedimentation dynamics and influencing the evolution of ecosystems. In order to investigate this phenomenon, charcoal-bearing sedimentary rocks and plant fossil assemblages of the Kirkwood Formation have been studied at the Bezuidenhouts River locality, ∼50 km north of Port Elizabeth (Eastern Cape, South Africa).

Detailed field observations of the sedimentary facies suggest that deposition occurred in a meandering fluvial environment with mature, vegetated floodplains. Depositional trends within a charcoal-rich bed (i.e., stratification, flattening and decrease in charcoal clast size down-current) indicate that a charcoal-rich debris flow, linked to a post-wildfire flood event, became diluted by fluvial flow. Palaeocurrent indicators (e.g., orientation of fossil logs) suggest unidirectional currents from SW to NE, which are somewhat inconsistent with the previously reported regional palaeocurrent directions in the Kirkwood Formation.

To gain insights into the fire-influenced dynamics of the Early Cretaceous ecosystems, the macro-plant fossil assemblages of the Kirkwood Formation were considered, with reference to the responses of modern plant analogues to wildfire. Of the plant orders reported from macrofossils of the Kirkwood Formation, the Cycadales, Pinales and Filicales, are known to have produced large woody or fibrous trunks and stems, or in the case of the Bennettitales more densely branched, divaricate architectures, and are likely to have provided the bulk of fuel for wildfires, with fern elements dominating groundcover niches. The particular role of these plants in the Early Cretaceous wildfire palaeoecology of the Algoa Basin is a topic for an ongoing study, but the Bezuidenhouts River locality appears to record the aftermath of a severe crownfire that led to mass tree mortality.

200k Years of Fire Played an Important Role Across the Eocene-Oligocene Boundary in Patagonia

Climate, dust, and fire across the Eocene-Oligocene transition, Patagonia

Authors:

Selkin et al

Abstract:

The Eocene-Oligocene transition (EOT) is typically interpreted as a time of drastic global cooling and drying associated with massive growth of a glacial icecap in Antarctica and the shift to an "icehouse" climate. The effects of this transition on the terrestrial environments, floras, and faunas of the Southern Hemisphere, however, have been unclear. Here we document simultaneous changes in fire regime and plant community in Patagonia, Argentina. Decreases in the concentration of magnetite in loessites from the Eocene-Oligocene Vera Member of the Sarmiento Formation correlate with decreases in the fraction of burnt palm phytoliths as well as more consistently palm-dominated phytolith assemblages. Association of magnetite and burnt palm phytoliths suggests intense wildfires, which appear to have been suppressed for ∼200 k.y. shortly after the EOT. The disappearance of fire-related characteristics near the EOT is possible if changes in regional wind patterns—consistent with observed changes in sediment particle sizes—caused changes in seasonal precipitation. These results imply a more important role for fire in structuring Eocene-Oligocene landscapes than previously thought.

Los Alamos' Las Conchas Fire Driven by Mountain Waves, Pyro-cumulus clouds

At about 1 p.m. on June 26, 2011, a wind-downed power line sparked a blaze in the Las Conchas area of Santa Fe National Forest. It would become the largest fire in New Mexico’s history at the time. Within hours, the flames spread to cover more than 160 square kilometers, threatening the town of Los Alamos, home of Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), which develops nuclear fuels and safeguards nuclear weapons, among other activities. Now, a new study identifies why the fire spread so far so fast, and the results may have implications for fire management practices in other mountainous regions.

“Between the hours of 8 p.m. and 3 a.m., the Las Conchas Fire exploded from 8,000 acres to 43,000 acres [about 32 to 174 square kilometers],” says Jeremy Sauer, an atmospheric scientist at LANL who participated in the new study, which was presented at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco in December. To determine how two atmospheric effects — pyro-cumulus clouds and mountain waves — may have contributed to the fire’s overnight blow-up, a team of scientists at LANL, led by Young-Joon Kim, used a computer model that combines atmospheric dynamics with fire physics. Other participating project members included Rodman Linn, Jesse Canfield, Keeley Costigan, and Domingo Muñoz-Esparza, all at LANL.

Pyro-cumulus clouds are towering plumes of water vapor and soot that rise from very large wildfires and that “look very much like large cumulus storm clouds,” Sauer says. By modeling different wind scenarios, they found that the plume created by the Las Conchas Fire may have collapsed in the night due to wind patterns known as mountain waves, which produce gusty surface winds in the evening as air currents cool and descend through mountainous terrain. This would have resulted in “a rapid intensification and spread of the fire,” Kim says.

This scenario also helps explain other anomalous behavior exhibited by the Las Conchas Fire, which increased in intensity overnight and spread rapidly downhill toward Los Alamos. “Typically, fires settle down during the night, and also tend to burn more rapidly uphill, because the flames are reaching upwards,” Sauer says.

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Fire in Postglacial Patagonia

Fire responses to postglacial climate change and human impact in northern Patagonia (41–43°S)

Authors:

Iglesias et al

Abstract:

Forest/steppe boundaries are among the most dynamic ecosystems on Earth and are highly vulnerable to changes in climate and land use. In this study we examine the postglacial history of the Patagonian forest/steppe ecotone (41–43°S) to better understand its sensitivity to past variations in climate, disturbance, and human activity before European colonization. We present regional trends in vegetation and biomass burning, as detected by generalized additive models fitted to seven pollen and charcoal records, and compare the results with other paleoenvironmental data, as well as archeological and ecological information to (i) estimate postglacial fire trends at regional scales, (ii) assess the evolution of climate–vegetation–fire linkages over the last 18,000 calibrated (cal) years B.P., and (iii) evaluate the role of humans in altering pre-European landscapes and fire regimes. Pollen and charcoal data indicate that biomass burning was relatively low during warm/dry steppe-dominated landscapes in the late glacial/Early Holocene transition and increased as more humid conditions favored forest development after ca. 10,000 cal years B.P. Postglacial fire activity was thus limited by fuel availability associated with sparse vegetation cover rather than by suitable climate conditions. In contrast to extensive burning by European settlers, variations in indigenous population densities were not associated with fluctuations in regional or watershed-scale fire occurrence, suggesting that climate–vegetation–fire linkages in northern Patagonia evolved with minimal or very localized human influences before European settlement.

Evidence of a Campanian Cretaceous Wildfire From Antarctica

The first report of a Campanian palaeo-wildfire in the West Antarctic Peninsula

Authors:

Manfroi et al

Abstract:

The analysis of palaeofloras and the related palaeoecological conditions is of great importance for the understanding of past environmental and palaeoclimatic events in Antarctica. At the end of the Cretaceous, subtropical forests developed there because of wet and temperate climate conditions. On the Antarctic Peninsula, which is geologically characterized by a forearc context, volcanic activity caused by tectonics favours the ignition of vegetation fires. In the present study, the occurrence of palaeo-wildfires during the Upper Cretaceous is demonstrated for the Rip Point outcrop on Nelson Island, South Shetland Islands. During Brazilian expeditions to the area, macroscopic charcoal was collected and subsequently analysed under a stereomicroscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The charred wood remains were identified as belonging to conifers, which were important components of the Antarctic palaeoflora during the Cretaceous. A review of the data published thus far regarding palaeo-wildfires in the Southern Hemisphere confirms that the charcoal remains analysed here are the first to verify the occurrence of palaeo-wildfires in the upper Campanian levels of the West Antarctic Peninsula.

Global Warming to Cause up to 50% More Lightning

Projected increase in lightning strikes in the United States due to global warming

Authors:

Romps et al

Abstract:

Lightning plays an important role in atmospheric chemistry and in the initiation of wildfires, but the impact of global warming on lightning rates is poorly constrained. Here we propose that the lightning flash rate is proportional to the convective available potential energy (CAPE) times the precipitation rate. Using observations, the product of CAPE and precipitation explains 77% of the variance in the time series of total cloud-to-ground lightning flashes over the contiguous United States (CONUS). Storms convert CAPE times precipitated water mass to discharged lightning energy with an efficiency of 1%. When this proxy is applied to 11 climate models, CONUS lightning strikes are predicted to increase 12 ± 5% per degree Celsius of global warming and about 50% over this century.

Holy Robopocalyptic Firefighters! Dept of Interior Testing KMAX Unmanned Helicopters for Fighting Wild Fires

The US Department of the Interior could begin using unmanned air vehicles to battle forest fire within a year based on a recent demonstration in which Kaman Aerospace and Lockheed Martin doused controlled burns with an optionally piloted K-MAX helicopter.

During a 5 November demonstration, an optionally manned version of the K-MAX completed eight firefighting scenarios at Griffiss International Airport in upstate New York designated by the Federal Aviation Administration as an unmanned air vehicle test site.

During a 4h window, the helicopter performed autonomous fire suppression operations including collecting and dropping 2,270kg (500gal) of water on controlled burns without a pilot in the cockpit, says Dan Spoor, Lockheed’s vice-president of aviation and unmanned systems.

“We also demonstrated the ability to build fire lines, which means sequentially dropping water in front of the fire to create a firebreak,” Spoor says.

The aircraft was able to drop 659l or 10,900kg (24,000lb) in an hour, the equivalent to a single Boeing 747 load, says Greg Steiner, president of Kaman Aerospace.

Also on hand for the test was a Lockheed Indago quadcopter, which fed information to the K-MAX ground control operator. The small UAV would be launched by a firefighter on the fire line to provide situational awareness and to designate a target for the K-MAX to douse.

Manned versions of the K-MAX already are used for firefighting missions, as well as construction, logging and humanitarian disaster relief.

“Optionally piloted versions build on this baseline,” Steiner says. “They can be flown as a manned version during the day and then unmanned during the night to support 24h firefighting.”

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